Table 4 Distinctive features of investigated traditional-based protection schemes
References | year | Citation | DER technology | Relay type/Required measures | Protection scheme | Features |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[61] | 2016 | 22 | Synchronous and inverter based | Not reported | Adaptive | Simple Lessens computational burden of intelligent controllers |
[62] | 2013 | 48 | Synchronous and inverter based | Not reported | Adaptive | Depends on wireless communication to transfer data |
[63] | 2018 | 4 | Synchronous and inverter based | Overcurrent | Adaptive | Prepares new settings offline Mitigate communication challenges Specifies a reference to which all changes are attributed to identify new patterns |
[64] | 2015 | 144 | Not reported | Directional overcurrent | Adaptive | Employs optimization techniques to optimize setting groups Setting groups can be calculated online or offline |
[65] | 2017 | 52 | Synchronous based | Overcurrent | Adaptive | Independent TDS settings for MG operation mode Based on constraints reduction that makes it fast and simple |
[66] | 2015 | 8 | Not reported | Overcurrent | Adaptive | Simple but need a huge database of simulated topologies Optimize operating times of relays using dual simplex algorithm |
[67] | 2020 | 21 | Inverter based | Directional overcurrent | Adaptive | Directional overcurrent relays with single and dual settings are used. The interior point approach is used to adjust relay settings in order to achieve optimal coordination |
[68] | 2015 | 118 | Synchronous and inverter based | Directional overcurrent | Adaptive | Ant colony optimization is employed to solve the non-linearity of directional overcurrent relays coordination Comparisons with Genetic algorithms are established The optimization phase is preceded by a sensitivity analysis to guarantee proper coordination, which significantly reduces the computational burden when discarding insensitive relay pairs |
[69] | 2015 | 102 | Inverter based | Overcurrent | Adaptive | Relays settings are based on Thevenin’s equivalent parameters Employs local data instead of communicated or GPS based one |
[70] | 2018 | 23 | Inverter based | Overcurrent and undervoltage | Adaptive | Adopts a technique for defining primary/backup pairs to ensure appropriate coordination. Robust Optimization Strategy is applied to overcome variables uncertainty |
[71] | 2015 | 27 | Synchronous and inverter based | Distance | Adaptive | Employs synchrophasors from PMUs Adopts Mho characteristics-based distance relay of 3 zones |
[74] | 2013 | 41 | Synchronous and inverter based | Current | Differential | Current differential based protection Optimizes relays locations and numbers The optimization issue takes into account the expenses of the protection scheme as well as customer interruptions;Â for both overhead lines and underground cables |
[75] | 2014 | 187 | Inverter based | Current sequence components | Differential | High selectivity and sensitivity Uses symmetrical components of current Detects high impedance faults Suitable for islanded MGs with inverter-based DERs |
[76] | 2016 | 92 | Inverter based | Positive sequence current | Differential | Suitable for islanded MGs Applicable for high impedance faults |
[77] | 2020 | 9 | Inverter based | Negative-sequence impedance angle | Differential | Detects low/high impedance faults Based on difference of impedance angle (phase comparison) Discriminates fault and switching transient events Independent of DER type and fault impedance Applicable for asymmetrical faults only |
[78] | 2021 | 1 | Inverter based | Positive-sequence impedance angle | Differential | Detects low/high impedance faults Based positive sequence phase comparison Employs DFT to estimate impedance angle Independent of DER type, fault impedance, and fault type |
[79] | 2018 | 3 | Inverter based | Voltage angle | Differential | Based positive voltage angle comparison Optimal placed PMUs are used to estimate voltages angles |
[80] | 2016 | 13 | Inverter based | Instantaneous power | Differential | Applies Fuzzy with Hilbert space logics Operates after fault inception by less than two cycles Handles CTs saturation and data mismatch Based on active/reactive power differences to detect faults Simple and high computational efficiency |
[81] | 2017 | 198 | Synchronous and inverter based | Current and voltage measurements | Differential | Differential features are estimated using DFT are employed Showed high dependability, security, accuracy for radial/mesh and connected/isolated topologies. Response time is close to 0.5–1 cycle |
[82] | 2018 | 144 | Synchronous and inverter based | Current measurements | Differential | Differential features are estimated using HHT are employed Three distinctive differential features are used: phase current energy, standard deviation of phase current, and zero-sequence current energy Three distinct machine learning models are evaluated. Showed high dependability, security, accuracy for radial/mesh and connected/isolated topologies |
[83] | 2013 | 190 | Inverter based | Fault current energy | Differential | Based on time–frequency transform (S-transform) Adaptive thresholds are required to handle MG layouts and fault conditions, etc. Slow response time of 4 cycles High computational burden |
[84] | 2016 | 132 | Inverter based | Fault current energy | Differential | Based on time–frequency transform (HHT-transform) Adaptive thresholds are required Threshold setting is easier than S-transform, in which the differential energy is not steep |
[87] | 2020 | 1 | Synchronous and inverter based | Harmonic voltage and current signals | Distance | Implements high-frequency voltage and current to estimate apparent impedance to fault Considers fault resistance and infeed effects |
[89] | 2018 | 5 | Not reported | Voltage and current at one end | Distance | Employs a directional feature to handle false tripping The trip area is adjusted to solve blinding events Does not consider relays coordination nor reach |
[90] | 2015 | 41 | Synchronous and inverter based | Voltage and current at one end | Distance | Zone settings are DERs-infeed dependent Coordination among different relays is adopted Reflects high selectivity and sensitivity |
[91] | 2018 | 56 | Inverter based | Voltage and current at beginnings of all feeders | Distance | Uses π-line model parameters Each line is studied separately Iterative, resulting in a long computing time |
[92] | 2019 | 17 | Synchronous and inverter based | Voltage and current phasors at main buses | Distance | High impedance faults are undetectable Based on local measurements Low computational burden since the feeder is only investigated if admittance phase and/or amplitude are changed Recommended only for small MGs |
[96] | 2020 | 9 | Not reported | Voltage and current data at relays | Overcurrent | Simple Improves relay speed and coordination System configuration is reflected through a compound factor in the operating time of the relay Handles fault types and different operating modes effectively |
[97] | 2012 | 131 | Inverter based | Current measures at DERs | Overcurrent and overload | Exploits voltage controller response after faults to decide fault conditions Signals noise sensitivity High computational time Overcurrent protection objectives: Fault current limitation Controller restoration following fault clearing Overload objectives: Regulating the output power of the DER |
[100] | 2016 | 58 | Synchronous based | Voltage and current data | Directional overcurrent | Reduced operating time owing to the relay dual-setting Uses system currents as the operational amount, while the fault transient energy sign acts as the directional element Addresses DER plug-and-play and high impedance problems |
[101] | 2018 | 57 | Not reported | Voltage and current data | Directional overcurrent | Single/dual setting DORs share the protection Coordination problem is optimized which ensures a better and accurate operation of relays Operating time of relays is improved |
[102] | 2019 | 43 | Synchronous and inverter based | Voltage and current data | Directional overcurrent | Two separate coordinating parameters are provided according to the mode of operation Genetic algorithms provide better performance than particle swarm |
[103] | 2021 | 12 | Inverter based | Actual system current with injected harmonic current | Directional overcurrent | Employs two different operating quantities for DORs: actual and harmonic currents Applicable for islanded/grid-connected modes Simple coordination process Relays coordination is based on the variance of operating quantity of DORs |
[104] | 2006 | 207 | Inverter based | Voltage data | Voltage relay | Relies on abc/dq transformation Relay sensitivity depends on the threshold value High impedance faults are ignored |
[105] | 2020 | 18 | Synchronous and inverter based | Voltage data | Voltage relay | Only one cycle of disturbed voltage waveform is processed Low computational time (typically 2 cycles) High impedance fault is a limitation High immunity against noise |
[106] | 2020 | 24 | Synchronous and inverter based | Voltage phasors | Voltage relay | High computational burden Relay sensitivity depends on the threshold value False action due to high impedance faults High selectivity |