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Table 3 Performance parameters of LFC with 2-DOF PID, FOPIDF, and PID controllers

From: Design of a 2-DOF-PID controller using an improved sine–cosine algorithm for load frequency control of a three-area system with nonlinearities

Controller

\(\Delta F_{1}\)

\(\Delta F_{2}\)

\(\Delta F_{3}\)

\(\Delta P_{{1 - \Delta F_{1} 2}}\)

\(\Delta P_{2 - 3}\)

\(\Delta P_{3 - 1}\)

2-DOF PID

Settling time

5.1195

5.6145

3.336

7.154

8.399

5.345

Maximum deviation

− 0.007548

-0.005649

-0.006749

− 15.42 × 10−5

− 8.201 × 10−5

− 19.64 × 10−5

FOPIDF

Settling time

5.654

7.334

5.654

8.722

9.973

5.542

Maximum deviation

− 0.0124

0.01117

− 0.001626

− 44.83 × 10−5

− 26.74 × 10−5

− 65.57 × 10−5

PIDF

Settling time

6.518

7.52

7.961

9.177

8.988

8.234

Maximum deviation

− 0.01643

− 0.013

− 0.002249

− 52.69 × 10−5

− 4.036 × 10−5

− 84.69 × 10−5